I. THE GEOLOGY ANDGEOGRAPHY OF CRETE
There was a time in the very remote past inearth's history when the island of Crete had not yet come intoexistence, but was part of a larger northern land mass, consistingof Italy and the Southern Balkan countries, severed along theAlps, the central portion of the Danube river, and south alongthe Rhodope mountains. The recent concepts of continental drift andplate tectonics have as yet produced no uniform account of thearea, and the Archaic (or Pre-Cambrian) and Paleozoic geologichistory of Crete and the surrounding land masses, remain largelyshrouded in darkness. The presence of igneous and metamorphic rocks,however, especially in the western provinces of Kissamos, Kydoniaand Selino, but also in those of Rethymnon and Aghios Vassilios,Milopotamos, Malevisi, Pedhiada, Mirabelo, Ierapetra and Siteia- in short, clearly throughout Crete - reveal a long, convulsive,crucial history, dating far back, perhaps, to the Paleozoic era,some 600 million years ago. During the Mesozoic era that followed,the entire area under discussion was a sea floor for all of (the)180 million years. Subsequent geologic history tells of numerouscomplicated, spastic, partial elevations and depressions of land,during an active organic period, forming new mountains and seabasins, which lasted until early Miocene times. These violentdiastrophisms within a short geologic interval of 50 million yearsmarkedly articulated the Helladic region with long mountain rangesand lakes. New geologic activities, during Miocene and Pliocenetimes, broke up the Helladic area, and Mediterranean waters rushedin to cover up entire regions that had sunk down. The presentform of the island began to develop from Lower Pleistocene times,when Crete was still joined to Peloponnesos and the DodecaneseIslands. From the middle of the Quartenary era, whennew fissures and fractures of the land mass occurred, Crete tookits present shape more or less. There have been no significantchanges to its shape, since Middle Pleistocene times. This doesnot mean however that geologic activity has ceased. For some thousandsof years, Crete has been slowly turning from west to east, withthe huge mass of Mt. Idhi (Psiloritis) as the axis of rotation,so that the Island's western section is being thrust toward anortheastern, and its eastern toward a southwestern, direction.This rotation, moreover, is accompanied by a light elevation ofwestern Crete and a depression of eastern Crete. The view expressedby Spratt in 1865 that in historic times Crete underwent elevationin the west and depression in the east is not considered correctin this general form. Detailed observations made in recent yearshave indicated that depressions are occurring on the coasts ofeastern and central Crete (Spinalonga, Cavo Sidhero, Myrtos, Matala,Heracleion), and elevations of the coasts of western Crete (Phalasarna,Ghrambousa, Souda, Sougyia, Moni Preveli etc.). Yet, when generalized,this phenomenon is misleading, because depressions have been observedwhere elevations are occurring, and vice versa. What is more likelythe case is that separate large areas of the island are undergoingelevations, depressions and rotation within a range of more generalmovements the results of which are observed in areas of thesecoasts. As for the rotation of the Island as a whole, it is beingeffected at so slow a rate, that for the past 5000 years it hasnot completed one full degreet! Situated at an equal distance from three ofthe world's five continents, and facing the north, Crete was lookedupon by the ancients as the center of the world. It is secondonly to Cyprus in the eastern Mediterranean, with a surface ofabeut (8,393.2 sq. km. or) 3,200 sq. mi.; (253.5 km. or) 160 mi.long; (56 Rm. or) 38 mi. at its widest, and (12 km. or) 7% mi.at its narrowest points, stretching between the 34~ 55' 25"and 35o 41' 45" parallels, and 23< 30' 30" and 26419' 20" latitudes. This position of Crete has had and continuesto have, an influence on its climate, fauna and flora, but alsoon the character and psychology of it inhabitants, and in general,on the cultural aspects regarding them. The island's very positionand physical wealth, have rendered it of old a field of invasions,and bloody clashes among a long series of rival conquerors. Its most pronounced and most influential,geographical, features are its main mountain ranges. They standawesome, and domineering from west to east: the White Mountainsor Lefka Ori, rising to 8,045 ft.; Mount Idhi or Psiloritis to8,058 ft.; the Dhikti Mountains to 7,047 ft. and the SiteiaMountains to 4,843 ft. The contrast of plain to mountain is indeedsmall. The plains of Mesara and Khania are probably the most noteworthy,the first extending 25 miles long and 5 miles wide, with muchrichness in agriculture, and greater still in history. Many otherplains and valleys are to be found between mountains ranges andhills, which on the northern areas are mostly level, but in thesouthern are narrow and abrupt. The narrow length of the island, the qualityof its rocks and the scanty rainfall on it, have not favored theformation of significant rivers. The chief rivers are the Keritisor Platanias, the Anapodharis, which runs in an unexpected direction,hence its name, the Mylopotamos, and the Yeropotamos in Mesara.The climate is generally dry throughout the year, with most rainfalloccurring between October and March. Most plants and animals arecharacteristic also of Greece, save for the herb, variously called:erondas, stamatohorto or, more widely, diktamo, and the agrimi- the most unigue and notable animal; which zoologists know ascapra aegagrus creticus.
A Brief History of Crete
II. MAN IN THE LITHICAGES
Prehistoric archaeology has not discoveredany Paleolithic remains to this date. However, there is no soundreason to suspect that Paleolithic man did not trod the island,and it is very probable that Crete was inhabited in the UpperPaleolithic, between 33,000 and 10,000 BC, and most probably fromMesolithic times, since 10,000 BC - the area west of Ierapetrabeing the most favored of all. The presence of Neolithic man has been wellestablished, at least since Sir Arthur Evans began digging inKnossos over half a century ago. In recent years, the archaeologistJohn Evans discovered a Neolithic site, dating from the end ofthe seventh millennium. Neolithic men's skulls together with varioussimple stone implements, opsidian knives, bone instruments andclay vases have been unearthed in numerous places on western andeastern Crete. Vases, in the earlier stages of Neolithic times,were awkwardly fashioned, but later were polished and decorated,though rarely in color, with incisions of a variety of designs.Many theories have been advanced concerningthe inhabitants of Crete. It has been suggested that the Cretanswere not Greeks. Others considered them to have been Egyptians,and others Semites. None of these, and similar theories, has commandedmuch attention, and the grounds upon which they had been restedhave proved flimsy and unscientific. Ares Poulianos, after anintensive anthropological investigation, concluded that the Cretansduring the past 6000 years, at least, if not more, have anthropologicallybeen the very same people until present times. Whether they changedlanguage or languages, customs and dress, kings and systems, andwhether they were influenced from various cultures and civilizationsor whether colonists of different race reached them during theirlong history, nonetheless their primal racial nucleus has notbeen altered by anything of that sort, and in their greater majority,Cretans have remained the same racial type or types from prehistoricdays. Poulianos maintains that Cretans are autochthonous to theAegean basin, at least since Mesolithic times. The varieties ofthe type that appears in western and eastern Crete have theirroots in the same anthropological type of the island - the Aegeantype. Immigrating peoples at different intervals introduced somemodifications, but did not change the morphology of the primaltype. Indirect anthropological data support the theory that theMinoites spoke Greek, and that the Minoan dynasty was autochthonous.How Neolithic cultures metamorphosed intocultural and civilization periods, divided and subdivided intoEarly, Middle and Late Minoan periods, each of which further subdividedinto early, middle and late stages, is an issue that fascinatesprehistorians and historians by its elusiveness. The process is,it appears, considerably imperceptible. The Neolithic age seems to have lasted a longtime, and it is estimated to have been an interval from 8,000to 3,000 BC Under the soil of the palaces of Knossos andPhaistos, in deep substrata, were found remains of Neolithic man.Also in Siteia, a Neolithic dwelling was found, and scatteredremains of the same period have been observed throughout Crete.During this early age, man had reached some degree of civilization.He lived in societies, and knew some crafts, albeit in primitiveform. He was ignorant of the use of metals, and fashioned histools and utensils out of stone. Neolithic people dwelled in simple huts madeof mud or stone, in groups of houses or settlements, and livedoff hunting, fishing and stock farming. The most significant remains of this age arethe stone implements, hammers and axes and knives fashioned withgreat difficulty from flint. Next, pottery, that is, day vasesprimitively fashioned out of thick mud. They made these vasesglossy on the surface, polishing them with some special tool,and baked them at the hearth, where the smoke penetrated the stillwet mud, and gave it a black or gray color. Often, they decoratedthe surface of the clay vases by carving with a pointed instrument,lines, circles, and dots, which they filled with white mud. Fromthe bones of the animals on which they fed, they made small toolsand ornaments.
A Brief History of Crete
III. MINOAN CIVILIZATION
The Neolithic age was succeeded, around 2,600BC, by the so called Minoan period, which lasted until twelfthcentury, when the heroic age of Greece, the Trojan War, and theDorian invasion are supposed to have occurred.
A. Prepalatial or Early Minoan Period and the appearance of metals, 2,600 to2,100 BC The belief of Sir Arthur Evans that the useof metals was taught to the Cretans by Egyptian émigrésis no longer held. It is more probable that Anatolia played sucha role. Crete had an important position in the Aegean, and theuse of metals increased her commercial transactions with othernations. Cretan ships went to Cyprus for copper, to the Cycladesfor gold and silver, and to Melos for obsidian stones. Crete'sharbors were very active. Zakro and Palaikastro, on the easterncoast, and the islands Mochlos and Pseira, more to the north,became centers for commercial relations with Asia Minor. Sucha role for Crete explains why its eastern coast was so full ofactivity and energy, at a time that Knossos was at a subneolithiestage, which knew no metals. Pottery with smoked colors made itsfirst appearance at Vassiliki and Palaikastro, as its treasuresbear witness, enjoyed great prosperity. The role of eastern Creteappears to have been significant for the birth of Minoan civilization.As the use of copper spread, a shift of commercialactivity toward the center of the island accompanied it. The needto find new sources of metals caused the Cretans to look to thewest and to the north - to Sicily and the Adriatic for tin, whichwas brought from Spain and Gaul. The mouth of the river Kairatos,near Knossos, continuously acquired more importance. A pathwayopened, crossing the island from north to south: Knossos and Phaistosare its chief trading and commercial posts. Eastern Crete beganto lose her commercial predominance to Knossos. B. Protopalatial Period, 8,100 to 1,V00BC (or Early Minoan HI to Middle Minoan III)The civilization that had developed in thethird millennium began suddenly to show tremendous advancementduring the interval 2,100 - 1,700. The causes were twofold: industrialprogress, especially in pottery, and the establishment of commercialrelations with Egypt. Protopalatial Crete excelled in the Aegean.Melos, Delos and Thera (or Santorini) became its outposts. Commercial influence reached the Argolid andcentral Greece, Aegina and Syra. Cyprus, too, came to depend commerciallyon Crete. Decisive for Crete's commercial future were the regularcommercial ties established with Middle Kingdom Egypt, eitherdirectly, or indirectly, through Syria and Phoenecia. The tiesCrete had with Asia Minor seem to have loosened, probably becauseof the Hittite invasions, which caused the decline of easternCrete. Malia and Vassiliki lessened production, and Palaikastroand Zakro felt the change in the fewer ships that reached them.Knossos and Phaestos concentrated most ofthe commercial power. Knossos turned to the Cyclades and mainlandGreece, and Phaestos south to Egypt. The first palaces were beingbuilt at this time, c. 2,000 BC which served, in addition to theirobvious functions, as temples, factories, forts and storehousesfor products. About 1,700 BC the palaces seem to have been strickenby earthquakes; but Minoan culture was not disrupted. C. Neopalatial Crete (Early Middle Minoan III to Late MinoanIII; 1,TOO to 1,400) At Knossos, Phaistos and Malia, the palaceswere reconstructed and enlarged with additional floors, stairwaysand courts, corridors, columns and murals and ritual chambers.Despite the evident power at Knossos, most cities in Crete displayedgreat wealth, artistic and architectural progress, and works ofirrigation during this period. No doubt, most refinements weremade on palaces and aristocratic dwellings, and there is no reasonto believe that the Cretan people shared in the new comforts andupsurge of activity. Most Cretans - at Knossos, Phaistos, Maliaand others - were farmers and laborers who supported the greatsociety of the priest-kings of the period. Aghia Triadha now comesto be inhabited by royalty. Even eastern Crete enjoys the new"renaissance"; Malia's palace is once again inhabited;Ghournia becomes again commercially and industrially important;Vassiliki and Knossos are in strong competition. This "renaissancewas due to the disturbances in Asia and Africa, by the Hyksos,Kassites and Hittites. Cretan ships are supplanting the Pharaoh'snavy in the east. And taking advantage of near eastern decline,the Cretans strengthened their ties with the Cyclades, Peloponnesus,and the Argolid, where new people were establishing themselves,and whom the Minoans will subdue with their culture.
In 1,580, Knossos' great palace was plunderedby its enemies. Malia cannot recapture its former power, and isvictim to the disturbances of Asia Minor, which struck at itscommerce. Phaistos had a similar fate, and for similar reasons.Aghia Triadha was a colony of Knossos, with which no city couldcompete, as it concentrated in its hands all of the Cretan commercewith Greece and the west. The reign of king Minos of Knossos falls inthe late part of this period. Who was this legendary Minos whoreigned over 90 and more cities? His date is uncertain. Herodotussays that he died 90 years before the Trojan War; Diodorus distinguishesbetween Minos and his grandson Minos II. Little else beyond thename comes from other historians. Undoubtedly, Minos representsa dynasty that reigned between 1,700 and 1,400 BC His governmentwas often threatened by internal difficulties: tradition preservestales of the jealousies between Minos and his brothers, Sarpedonand Rhadamanthys, exiled to eastern Crete - jealousies which symbolizethe dynastic struggles at Knossos, and feudal antagonists: Eteocretansin the south, Pelasgians and Kydonians in the west, and Lyciansin the east. The comment of Thucydides is famous, as tohow Minos had a fleet and reigned over the Greek seas, extendedhis power over the Cyclades, expelled the Carians, colonized mostislands, placing his sons to govern, and cleared the seas frompirates. The name 'Minos' which had been given to colonial commercialcenters of Laconia, Megaris, Sicily, Syria and perhaps even Arabia,as well as the term 'Minoan islands' by which Apollonius Rhodiuscalls some of the Cyclades, bear witness to the Cretan imperialismin the Mediterranean. There is also much evidence of emigrationfrom central Crete to many islands, which either occurred becauseof earthquakes or of the quarrels among Greek leaders. Cretan power began to decline at about 1,450BC Throughout Crete, cities appear to have been overwhelmed byfire, and other destructive agents. The causes have been, andare still to some degree, debated by geologists, archaeologistsand classical historians. The ever-prevailing opinion now is thatthe ultimate cause was the eruption of the volcano on Thera (orSantorini), an island 75 miles north of Crete. Pumice and othervolcanic ashes and stones were found at all the sites, as wellas the evidence of fire. Huge portions of walls, and statues werefound hurled over large distances - phenomena which only strongearthquakes can bring about. It is now believed that strong earthquakes,and an eruption, about 1,500 BC first warned of the approachingcataclysmic destruction. Some 50 years later, nature's fury unleasheditself. Oceanographers of deep sea sediments have revealed widespreadburied ash layers that become thicker toward Thera, and that thematerial erupted was 3 to 4 times greater than from the Krakatoaeruption, which in 1883 drowned 35,000 people and destroyed 300towns. Thera's eruption would have generated tsunamis, waves perhapsas much as 328 feet high, which could reach northern Crete in20 minutes without warning. Prevailing winds blew great volumesof ash southeastward which, like a blanket, covered the populouseastern Crete at least 4 inches thick, killed vegetation, andmade cultivation for a time impossible. Archaeological evidencefrom the destroyed cities of that time supports the terrible truthof this event. Also, Egyptian writings record the cessation ofimports of Cretan cedar and of oil needed for preparing mummiesduring the 18th dynasty of Egypt, which would be about 1,500 BCD. Postpalatial Crete or Late Minoan II1,400 to 1,100 BC: Mycenean Crete However Minoan culture was destroyed, theAchaean Greeks were on Cretan soil soon after. Knossos, Tylissos,Aghia Triadha, Palaikastro, and other cities were reoccupied.Much movement of peoples - especially to eastern Crete - is inevidence. Military power shifted to mainland Greece, and consequentlyCrete's commercial importance greatly declined. When the citiesof Greece sailed against Troy, the Cretans, with a contingentof 80 ships - the largest fleet of all sent to Troy - joined themunder the leadership of King Idomeneus. According to Thucydides, the Dorian invasiontook place 80 years after the Trojan War. The Dorians came downinto Greece, either from Illyria and Epeirus or from Macedoniaand Thrace, and settled in the Argolid and the Peloponessos. Cretewas subdued around 1,100 BC Knossos again meets with fires andslaughter; Cretan cities are destroyed and the property of thevanquished seized. Archaeology has shown that the Achaeans andMinoites united against the common danger, and found refuge ininaccessible Karfi. The Dorian conquest easily showed the triumphof iron swords against copper knives, which the Myceneans werestill using, but it also showed a less palatable truth, namely,that frugality and moderation of military life had vanquishedthe luxury and love for art which Crete had handed to the Aegeanworld.
E. Cretan Institutions and Culture The transfer from Neolithic tribal organizationto a monarchical form of government does not appear to have developedin any unusual way, or to have been brought about by a catastropheof culture. As Neolithic houses and villages grew, in an agglutinativemanner, as it has been called, that is, by adding rooms and areasof varying sizes and for varying functions to an original nucleus,so too, tribal chiefs and important functionaries may have accruedadditional functional power, with the necessary rationale behindthem, to be gradually transformed to the monarch of the EarlyMinoan period. The sovereign function of the king found symbolicexpression in the tall scepter, the double axes or labrys, thesymbol of the thunderbolt, and in the lily, drawn in his coatof arms, on the walls of his palace and on his vases. The characterof royal authority is religious. A priest-king, Evans claims.Minos is the personification of male god fertility, the lord ofthunder and rain, and relates with the Mother goddess who representsthe earth. Every nine years he consults in private with his fatherZeus, on Mt. Ghiouchata. There, at the god's pleasure, one lostor gained 9 more years of sovereignty. The palace at Knossos housed different services,in which apportioned was the island's administration. There werearchives; and the scribes registered royal decrees on tabletsand kept them. About the administration of justice, and otherjudicial affairs we are in the dark. The tradition that Minoswas a judge in the underworld may reflect the tremendous prestigehe might have enjoyed in the same capacity while alive. A full understanding of economic organizationwe shall probably obtain when the decipherment of the tabletshas been completed beyond the awkward problems that still surroundthem. Of the chief ruler's treasure and wealth we can easily judge.It consisted not only of precious objects, but of grains, wineand oil stored in huge vases, pithoi or, as we still know them,pitharia. These goods were received from royal possessions aswell as from taxing the produce of the island. The king was the leader of the armed forces.Cretan forces consisted of Minos' subjects as well as from hisown guard. The army was made up of archers, famous in classicaltimes, and horsemen or knights with a helmet, conical in shape,a billowed shield and a spear. Two-wheeled chariots were in muchuse also. It may be that the army was not so large in number sincesecurity rested on the naval forces. How the sexual roles were precisely establishedis not clear. What seems clear, however, is that a woman was nothead of the family. Nor are we justified into supposing a matriarchyanalogous to that of the Hittites. The Cretan woman does enjoya political role, and only at home does she have equality withthe Cretan man. But the significance which the Minoan societygives to woman is indisputable and unparalleled in mainland Greece.Instead of being shut up in women's chambers,the Cretan woman shares in different activities of the state.She has first place in religious rites, and of course, the chiefCretan divinity was a woman. She shares in the work of factories;seals of Early Minoan period present her at work on ceramics.Nor is she excused from heavier work. She rides the chariot andhunts. She is a boxer and a bullfighter, if we judge rightly fromKnossian wall paintings. The Cretan woman is very beautiful. Worksor art accent the antithesis between her light skin and her blackhair, and adorn feminine beauty with ornaments and jewelry. Thewomen of the palace at Knossos wore golden crowns or diadems,and the less wealthy various rings or earrings. Their hair wasdone in complex ways and held with golden hair-pins. In dressshe was very modern; a bodice and a skirt, with back or breastsexposed; a corset very tightly worn around the waist, while theshirt fell long and broad or bell shaped. The imagination of theCretan women's hats is amazing: caps, turbans, berets, and conicalhats - all kinds were invented. In the area of shoes they werenot less imaginative. The Cretan woman walked barefoot at home,but when she stepped out, she would wear, depending on the weatherand her mood, laced sandals, high heels and even leather boots.Dressed in this way, woman reigned, if shedid not govern over Cretan society.
AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE Homer relates that Crete was well-wooded,and archaeology has verified his words. In Neolithic times, theCretans lived as food gatherers, fruit gatherers, fishermen andhunters. The fame of Cretans as hunters reached down to Xenophon'stimes. The plough was a simple wooden plough without a beam, andhad been used later in Crete than in mainland Greece. Presumably,it was the great population growth that forced the Cretans towardsthe cultivation of their land. The form that cultivation took is not known.In Middle Minoan times, great estates were organized as if theywere to accommodate a life of self-sufficiency. In late Minoandays there were small estates enclosed by fences. But who cultivatedthe land? What was the status of the peasants, their way of life,their technical means? We cannot conceive of country life in MinoanCrete, except from representations on seals. Wheat was cultivated more or less all overthe island, but especially on the plains of Messara and Lasithi.Burnt wheat germ has been found at Aghia Triadha, Palaikastroand at the palace of Knossos. The olive is known from very earlytimes. Vineyards, in turn, gave a Rind of wine that would notundergo decanting, but was kept as obtained and in strangely shapedvases. Cretan agriculture was not specialized, but showed greatvariety of production. Large stretches of land unsuited for cultivationwere turned to pastureland. Small animals were plentiful in Crete:sheep, pigs and goats. On the contrary the horse was introducedin Late Kinoan I, possibly from Egypt and Cyprus.Household economics in time were differentiatedand the potter, carpenter and bronze-worker made his social appearance.In a small industrial town like Ghournia, one home maintainedan oil press, another a blacksmith shop and a third a carpentryshop; all were concentrated round a public court which servesas a marketplace. Palaces housed all kinds of professions. Two millennia before Christ, goldsmiths knewthe art of soldering or welding metals; the h6noite bronze workersknew how to fix locks and keys much before the rest of the Greeks;dyers knew well the use of saffron dyeing and deep purple dyeingfor clothing. The fame of Cretan craftsmen reached beyondthe confines of the domestic markets; it spread to the whole ofeastern Mediterranean and was a decisive factor for the developmentof the island's commerce. Progress in industry and the growth in thedemand of luxury items caused commercial interests to seek outraw materials that were needed for the new techniques in metallurgyand the art of the goldsmith. Different towns began to specialize:embroidery products at Ghournia, weapons and ornaments at Knossos,copper tools at Praisos. Also, at this time, good roads beganto be bui1t between such commercially related cities. Soon, wereach the days of the "watery roads" and the beginningof sea commerce. From Early Minoan II as represented on terracottasof Palaika-forests provided pine and cedar wood needed to constructships. From casts of seals and paintings on vases, we note thatCretan ships differed greatly from Egyptian. We don't know theirspeed and capacity, but it must have been limited, and constructedfor runs, contrary to the bulky and round ship of Early MinoanII as represented on terracottas of Palakastro, which must havebeen used for carrying cargo. The development of commerce necessitated theadoption of a system of weights and measures. Such systems werediscovered at Knossos, in Siteia and in the storehouses of thepalace of Malia. The scale was known in Knossos from very earlydays. Inscriptions on metal balls or on golden and silver discsthat were used for expressing their value are the first indicationsof coinage in the Aegean world. What of the products exported? Oil and wine,for which they transported in very large jars, medicinal plants,for which the island was very famous, weapons and jewelry, potteryand cloth. The commercial activities of the Cretans includedtransporting goods to others. Thus they traveled to Phoeneciafor Lebanon's trees to transport to Egypt. Apparently, agreementshad been reached between the king of Knossos and the Mediterraneanpowers that permitted the Cretans to function as intermediaries.Initially, commercial ties were confined tothe Aegean. Crete exported pottery and seals, and imported famousCycladic statuettes from Syros, or obsidian from Melos which helda monopoly on it. From Melos they reached the Argolid, and nextcentral Greece. Knossian influence extended to eastern Greeceup to Macedonia. From Cyprus they loaded with timber and copperore. It served as intermediary for Syrian and Palestenian commerce.A Cretan camel seal suggests ties with Asia or African caravans,which reached the Syrian harbors. Mesopotamian tablets of Marirefer to ties it maintained with Kaftor ( - Crete), while in aMiddle Minoan tomb in Mesara was discovered a Babylonian cylinderof the age of Hamurabi. There is ample proof, from both Creteand Egypt, that commercial transactions existed from a very earlyperiod. In the west, Cretans reached Sicily, Sardiniawhich shows a religious, industrial and technological influence,the Balearic Islands, Carthage and, perhaps, Iberia and northwesternAfrica.
G. Religion and Art Religion had a tremendously great importancein Minoan civilization. It influenced the art, institutions andprivate life of Crete. But, as has been said of it, it is a beautifulbook with pictures but no content. The most original feature ofCretan religion was the exceptional love it had for symbols. We find in Crete the fetishism that is foundin other primitive religions: the worship of uncut stones, ofthe ax and the shield, and the presence of the cross in decorations,and mysterious horns in objects of worship. We do not know butcan only guess at their meaning. The double ax has a significant place in worship.From the Middle Minoan I we find it on columns, walls, vases,on precious stones and on rings. Golden, silver, copper, and stoneaxes have been discovered suggesting perhaps its use in the artof sacrifice. Very recent excavations have revealed bones of children,with evident markings from a sacrificial knife, such as is madein animals during sacrifices, in areas showing traces of fire,though the bones do not. They are dated c. 1,450 BC It is suspectedthat orgiastic rites of Zagreus who was eaten raw by the Titansare the most likely context, but much more work is awaited onthis matter. No less clear is the Cretan inclination foranthropomorphism. This is evident in the development of the MotherGoddess statues. As in Anatolian religions, the predominance offemale divinities, statuettes of terracotta or marble, whose positions,at first a seated one, but later an upright one, and whose voluminousforms - busts which portrude, wide buttocks, large back, hugenavels - give a picture of caricatured fertility. It later developsand evolves: she is found at the root of the tree of life or accompaniedby snakes, lions or birds; and, in a late form, she is givingbirth to a monkey. Her association with the snake suggests a chthonicpower. The Cretans seem to have believed in the continuationsof life beyond the grave, for they buried their dead and includedalong the departed's most useful objects: dothes, weapons, amulets,table ware and even lamps. Cretan art was undoubtedly influencedby Anatolian art and culture. Contrary to the statuettes' grotesqueness,much of Cretan art is realistic. This is true in the representationsof animals; vases resemble birds, and their spouts' beaks; eyesdrawn at the sides. Jewelry and other carvings represent insects,but also frogs, monkeys seated or facing each other. A sample of the high level achieved in potterymay be seen in the amazing collection of small vases dated fromEarly Minoan II, and found at Mochlos. Other kinds of ornamentaljewelry was noted in the discussion of dress. Architecture truly began with the buildingsof the palaces. They are characterized by the alignment of therooms, which connect among themselves by corridors, at the expenseof structural unity. The care for comfort often sacrifices symmetryand order. Knossos, Malia and Phaistos are overwhelmed by suchstructures. The most unique architectural and engineering featsin Minoan life were the sewer and drain systems, which, sincetheir discovery, have been unrivaled until modern times. Whetherthe Cretans had written literature is unknown.
A Brief History of Crete
IV.Mycenean Civilizationand the Dorian Invasion
The Achaeans or Myceneans brought to Cretea number of things, since their occupation - their dialect, theirdress, their beards (which Cretans used to shave) and fashions;their chiton, their house style, with its megaroa, a kind of antechamberwith a circular hearth, and their calendar. Also, a new political organization was established.Tablets refer to the wanax. He replaced the Minoan monarch, andis surrounded by his companions, to whom he entrusts the directionof the different royal services and the execution of militaryorders. The island is divided into fiefs, the significance ofwhich eludes us; each of them obey a king, a feudal archon whois vassal to the wanax. The Greek pantheon was incorporated, and thenames of many of the gods known from mythology, as Athena, Poseidonand Hera are referred to in the Linear B tablets. Agriculture appears to advance, and a woolindustry is established. As Mycenean commerce opens new roads,it gives itself over to mass production, and artistic and aestheticqualities go by the board. The army is significantly strengthened, andthe tablets permits us to reckon that the wanax had at his disposalmore than 400 chariots. The navy is still noteworthy and despiteits decline, it offers 80 ships for the expedition of Troy. Cretansfurnish the Mycenean world with sailors and mercenary soldiers.Although the Dorian invasion is dark and confused,as as concerns the unfolding the upset it carried to Crete isbeyond dispute. New institutions make their appearance: the conquerorsare divided into tribes; societies and gymnasia are established;the old inhabitants come under the sattus of serfs, and the apetairei(neither bonded nor enslaved, and excluded from the hetaireiaior societies); they dwell mainly on the eastern section of theisland. The Dorians brought with them two other innovations: thebuilding of temples, and the cremation of the dead.
A Brief History of Crete
V. Crete in Hellenicand Hellenistic Times
After the Dorian invasion, the face of Creteremained without expression for centuries. From 1,200 BC the islandof Minos, the victim of a political as well as a geographicalor economic isolation, withdrew into its past. When Crete wasdiscovered by historians and philosophers of the 4th century BC,what they praised or condemned in its institutions and customswas the old Doric inheritance. A. Crete in the Fifth Century Knossos and Gortyna remain important, whilethe decline of Phaistos is evident. What ties united the citiesis not known, but tradition claims incessant warfare among them.Cretan society is hierarchical; the citizens,though few in number, are at the top, and are descended from theDorians. They were all subjected to a mass or group education,as also in classical Sparta. A citizen's education consisted inbecoming a soldier. He had to share in communal meals, the andreia,at government expense, with other members of the societies orhetaireiai, who would later fight alongside with him. The members of these societies or fraternitiesdid not need to work, but were supported by sefs who were ownedby the government, or by the families of citizens, and cultivatedthe estates. Their life does not appear to have been terrible,and no records of an supraise exist, as in the case for mainlandGreece. Cretan cities were governed by two bodies:the Kosmoi, and the Senate. The Eosmoi were ten in number, andwere recruited from privileged families. They served for a year,and noteworthy political and military authority. They supervisedmorals, economic conditions, and the status of foreigners. Whentheir year of service was over, they became members of the Senatefor life. All citizens took part in the Ekklesia or Assembly,whose authority was to approve or reject the laws without discussion.Yet, very early inscriptions show that this was not always thecase, and that Assemblies did once decree law. All Cretan citiesor states were governed by oligarchies, at this period.During the 5th and 4th centuries BC Creteis a closed country, far from the great current of events thatshakes up the rest of Greece. In 480, when the Persian dangerexisted, the Greeks invited Cretans to pretext that Delphi hadordered them to do so. The same was done during the PeloponnesianWar, despite Sparta's sympathies for the island. Even in the Olympiccompetitions, it is only in 448 BC that Cretan names are listedamong those of the athletes. In the Hellenic Age, while Greek authors areenthusiastic the archaistic institutions of Crete, the islandwas facing disturbances that at other times shook Greece. Nevertheless,it stood aloof from all activities upsetting the Mediterranean.In the 4th century, the aristocratic structuredissolved because of continuous civil wars, and its place wastaken by an urban class of merchants and ship-owners, who becamewealthy from Greek commerce. The new flow of money further disruptedthe functioning of whatever institutions were still at work. Therewas a revitalized commerce, however, and some exportation of oil,wine, and honey. The merchant alass tolerated with difficultythe oligarhical rule, and there was much emigration to Asia Minorand Greece, while Gortyna, Knossos and Lissos were in furiousquarrels. Cretans come to the fore as expert archersand mercenaries, who Alexander the Great employed in his warsin Asia. At this time, Crete is divided into three alliances,Gortyna, Knossos and Kydonia. An attempt at unification - theKoinon - a kind of federation or confederation of city statesin Crete proved abortive, and soon Gortyna and Knossos were fightinga battle of survival. The internal weakening of Crete exited theambitions of its neighbors. Ptolemaic Egypt attempted to invadeCrete during 267-261 BC, but it failed. Philip V of Macedoniaallied with Gortyna in 220 BC and actually brought some peaceon the island, which civil wars had destroyed. Crete remainedfaithful to Macedonia during the latter's war with Rome. From that time Rome intervened on every pretextas an arbiter in the quarrels among the cities. In 184 and 180BC, and again, in 174 BC, Rome sent ambassadors to mediate betweenGortyna, Knossos and Kydonia, who were violently at war. Piracywas at its peak. The Rhodians attempted to react against the situation,were defeated in 154 BC by the Cretans, but were saved thanksto the intervention of Rome. It was Crete's last victory. WhileRhodes declinedand Greece and Macedonia became Roman, Crete remainedindifferent to Mediterranean affairs, and continues to be tornapart by civil wars.
A Brief History of Crete
VI. Roman Peace
Its place in the Mediterranean compelled Creteto become Roman. After Rome conquered Macedonia and Asia, it thoughtit unnecessary to maintain a standing army. Pirates took advantageof the event and appeared in Cilicia and Crete. From there theyattacked throughout the eastern Mediterranean, and at Delos, whichwas a Roman commercial center. The situation was aggravated whenMithridates entered the war. The king of Pontus relied on Cretansand Sicilians to aid him against Rome, by an alliance with Spartacus.To face this threat, Rome felt it had to conquer Crete; but therewere other motives. Crete was famous for her booty, since it washaven for pirates. The Roman Senate in 74 BC put the matter inthe hands of Marc Antony, the father of the future triarch, thegeneral naval administration of the Mediterranean. The choicewas unfortunate. Anthony underestimated the situation in Crete,and came ill-prepared. The Cretans conquered the Roman forces,and subjected them to so humbling an indemnity, that the Senaterefused to comply. In 68 BC Rome being rid of Mithridates, orderedCrete to deliver over the conquerors of Antony, and to releasethe Roman prisoners of war. Crete refused, and the Roman Senateordered Metellus to vanquish it. After successive conquests ofindividual cities, on account of Metellus' harshness, the Cretansrefused to negotiate with him, and informed Pompey, who was thenfighting the pirates, that they would surrender to him. Nevertheless,although dismissed by Pompey, Metellus completed the pacificationof Crete in 63 BC Apart for some information on the politicaladministration of Crete, almost nothing else survives. Rome madeher impact, however, and the results in material remains: roads,aqueducts, theaters and odeons, are visible today.
A Brief History of Crete
VH. Crete and Byzantium
Crete remained far from the disturbances ofthe Roman Empire, and the barbarian invasions which brought itor quickened its fall. From the time the Empire was reorganizedin 298 AD Diocletian separated Crete from Cyrenaica. Constantinethe Great attached it to Illyria. By the eighth century, Creteformed a theme, governed by a general. Themes were at this timethe new Byzantine administrative unit oriented towards the mostefficient means of local defense. From the 7th to the 10th century, the numberof cities seems to have declined; according to Hierokles, therewere 22. Byzantine writers rarely refer to the island in the>
Transfer interrupted!32, Leo III increased the polltax and Crete was forced to contribute men to the army of ConstantineV. In 732, after the iconoclast controversy,which brought him into a quarrel with the Pope, Leo III removedCrete from Roman sovereignty, and subordinated it to the Patriarchof Constantinople. The Cretan Church followed, from this pointon, the general religious developments of the east. At the endof the 9th century Crete had an archbishop and eleven bishops.The prelates of Crete took part in the great synods of EasternChristendom, but their part in them was insignificant. Until the 7th century, the prosperity of Creteconsisted in the protration of a Roman peace. Cultivation of landdoes not undergo many changes; grain, the vineyard and the olivecontinue to be the chief cultivation. Possibly Byzantium encouragedon the island a movement for the concentration of property, anevent that is observed also in all the other parts of the Empire.The small estate tends to vanish before the large estates of theNation, the Church and private owners. Was there an expansionor a restriction of serfdom? Could there be a case for a returnto a condition of serfdom? What was the fortune of free peasants?There are many questions which are difficult to answer. Art was quite influenced by Byzantine technique:icons and ivory, fabrics and mosaics, glass ware and enamel panels.But, from the previous period to the Arab conquest, nothing remains.
A Brief History of Crete
VIH. The Arab Conquest(888-961)
A new danger appeared in the Mediterraneanin the 7th century. Islam established itself permanently on itsshores. Moavia (Mu'awiyah), the Governor of Syria, who realizedthe significance of naval warfare, formed in 649 a fleet thatwould destroy Cyprus and the Isaurian shore. Despite the trucesigned with Byzantium in 650, Rhodes was pillaged in 654. Arabships began to appear on the Cretan sea in the following year.From this point on the island lived in terror. The threat was carried out in the 9th century.The quarrels among the Muslims in the capital of the emirs, Cordoba,provoked in 816 the uprising of the Arabs of Andalousia againstemir Al-Hakim. Defeated, they took refuge in Egypt, where, benefitingfrom the agitation, they seized Alezandris in 818-819. After theywere ousted by Caliph Mahmoun, they decided to settle on Crete.With Abu-Hafs as their leader, they became masters of the island.Gortyna gave them the strongest resistance. They laid siege toit and tortured the Metropolitan of Crete, Cyril to death. Following their traditions, they founded anew capital. They established it on the north shore, not far fromKnossos. At first, it consisted of a simple trench, handaki (fromthe Arabic), from which came the name of Candia. The conquestlasted 133 years. Crete recognized the sovereignty of the Caliphof Cairo and received, in consequence, aid from the Fatimides.It also maintained relations with Cordoba. In fact, Crete becamea kind of inherited principality; the succession if its sovereigns,who take the title of emir, is shown to us through the coins theyissued. Through the conquest of the island and the destructionand persecution of the Christian element, a great religious andethnological change came. Some were killed in the war, otherswere slaughtered because they would not change their religion.Others who were islamized lost their national consciousness, andbecame the serfs of the conquerors or, pursued continuously, tookrefuge in inaccessible mountains and ravines. From the Cretan harbors, the shores of Greeceor of the Adriatic would be raided, and Byzantium was compelledto counterattack. The first attempt to re-conquer the island wasmade in 825. Photeinos, the Governor of the theme of the east,was appointed general of Crete. He disembarked on the island,but his attempt failed. Another expedition in 826 led by generalKarteros, was initially more successful. He disembarked on theeast of Handaka and stubbornly engaged the Arabs in battle forone whole day; finally, he routed the Arabs, who fled to the city.Karteros' army camped by the river Amnisos, where they abandonedthemselves to drunkenness in celebration of their victory. Whenthe Arabs were informed of this, they attacked the unguarded armyduring the night and destroyed it. Karteros fled in a ship, butthe Arabs pursued him to the island of Kos, where they killedthem. The only memento of the battle is the renaming of the riverAmnisos after the general. Not much later, general Ooryphas pursuedthe Arabs, succeeded in restricting their raids, but did nothingto regain the island. Two other expeditions against the Arabsof Crete, both of which failed, are mentioned by historians. Thefirst in 902 under Himerios, and the largest of all, under theeunuch Gongyles, an inept favorite of the Byzantine court, in949 or 956, who caused the destruction of that great expedition.The failure by Byzantine forces to re-conqueredCrete no doubt strengthened the Arabs' sense of security duringthis period, and it is probable that other Arab soldiers of fortunefrom Spain, Syria and Africa, were attracted to the island. ForCrete became a formidable nest of Arab pirates, and slave tradecenter which, among other things, provided recruits for the haremsof the east. At last, in Nikephoros Phokas, the ByzantineEmpire found the person suitable for the great task. With a verylarge fleet (3,300 ships - 2,000 war ships with 250 armed fighters,and the rest filled with supplies, machinery and Greek Fire) gatheredat Phrygela in Asia Minor opposite Samos. In July 960 he sailedin full force for Crete, disembarking at the Bay of Halmyros,where he gave battle at once. The Arabs almost at once shut themselvesbehind the walls of Fort Handakas (Candia). After an excruciatingeight month blockade (due to severe winter and famine), Phokasbroke through the Fort's walls on March 961. A merited vengeance for 135 years of Arab-inducedmisery and slavery was inflicted. No mercy was shown for the cityfilled with a century's plunder of the towns, monasteries andchurches of the Aegean. The startling figure of 200,000 slainis recorded by the Arab chronicler Nuwairi. The mosques were closed;missionaries, and colonists of Greeks and Armenians were sentto repopulate many of the island's areas. From 961 to 1204 our information on Creteis a Byzantine province governed by a Duke. From this period ofCretan history dates the tradition that new colonists under 12leaders, called Archontopouloi, came from Constantinople, establishedthemselves on Crete, and became founders of these aristocratichouses of the island which we still see functioning during theVenetian period; the Kallergi, Skordili, Melisseni, Varouchi,Mousouri, Vlasti, Hortatzi, and others. The tradition is suspect,however, and may have been invented to provide grounds for claimsto nobility and aristocratic privileges.
A Brief History of Crete
- IX. Venetian Crete.
In 1204 Crete became a colony of the SereneRe- public of Venice. The Venetians remained on Crete for fourcenturies. On that year, the Franks of the 4th Crusade destroyedthe Byzantine Empire and distributed the lands among themselves.The Franks sold Crete to the Venetians who, after some disputeover it with the Genovese, came in possession of it in 1210, andruled over it until 1669. A. Venetian Institutions Crete was directly dependent on Venice. Itwas divided in four sections, under four Reetores, which werefurther divided into Castella and Casalia (castles and manors).A class of high and low officials was established. The formerwere appointed by Venice and had the rank of patricians, and thelatter were simply local archons. The Duke, who resided in Herakleion, was thehighest archon or official and was appointed by the Great Councilof Venice for two years. He had great powers, but was accountablefor his actions at the end of his service. With him ruled a council,also for two years, and together they formed the Venetian despotatof the island. A general, whose powers were also limited,was in charge of the armed forces, and of the island's defense.The Camerlegi, at the beginning two, but later three in numberwere responsible for the economy. Except for the annual inspectionto which their management was subject, there was also one everyfive years under a syndic. Of the lower officials or archons, who wereelected by local Venetian or Cretan aristocracy, the more importantwere those who had judiciary functions. The attorneys or advocatorscommunis were twelve in number, and were charged with settlingdisputes which arose between the Greeks and the Latins. When highsums were involved, only the courts of Venice were consideredsuitable to settle matters. In charge of the police were the militaryadministrator of Crete and the domlni de die at de nocte (thelords of the day and night). In very serious situations, Venicewould send to Crete a general Commissioner with dictatorial authority,even over the Duke and the general. B. Soeial and Economic StructureIn the beginning, Venice left the Cretansto their estates and confined themselves to installing garrisonsin the cities. Crete clearly held for it a simple commercial andstrategic interest. But the successive Genovese attacks and theplots of the populace compelled the Senate to examine the modeof its occupation. The consficated estates were divided intothree parts. The first was reserved for the needs of the Republic'sservices, the second for the Church, and the third conceded tothe colonists. The Senate favored immigration of Venetians intothe island, and during the years from 1211 to 1367 some 600 familiesof nobles, excluding their military retinues and servants, andmany refugees of old Venetian colonies, came to the island. The estates were cultivated, for the benefitof the colonists, either by peasants free or serfs attachedto the estate. Each colonist had 25 such persons under his jurisdiction.Many may have been descendants of the Arabs who had been madeserfs by Phokas. Each estate was subject to a high tax, calleda "third of the select wheat" which represented % of the wheat production by the estate. The amount was fixed beforehand,analogous with the value of the sown fields and the mean produce.If the year were bad and there were an insufficient harvest, thecolonists were still obliged to deliver up the entire amount oftheir share. They would thus at times have to mortgage their estate.This kind of system helps explain the role of the Jewish community.The colonists had to turn to usurers, who were on the verge ofmaking the island their possession. Venice took several measuresto prevent that sort of thing. At times, it placed limitationson lenders by decreasing the interest (as in 1398), other timesit would allow the Jews only a security and not a mortgage loan(as in 1449). Finally, it took away their right to own real estate.These acts betrayed the incontestable economic malice of Venetiancolonization. The system of production that was setup wasa type of colonial economy. Having established themselves on greatestates, the Venetians developed speculative cultivation at theexpense of cultivating food stuff. Vine cultivation soared. FromRethymno wine reached Wallachia and Poland, Germany and England,where Ben Jonson praised its quality. But the expansion of the production of thesegoods which constitute the object of true monoculture resultedat the expense of grain crops. The Serene Republic of Venice manytimes would prohibit the cultivation of wheat in the most fertileareas of Crete, in order that in this way a great accumulationof serfs would be avoided, and the island would be prevented fromproviding a basic food stuff in case there were an insurrection.Elsewhere, the price of wheat was fixed beforehand, and licensesto export were very rarely given. Wheat cultivation, consequently,reached the point of being abandoned. Depression of trade concealed a social malaise.In 1577, some 407 Venetian families were estimated to have beenestablished on Crete as opposed to 184,000 Greeks. The wealthiestestates, highest offices and military rank were intended for Venetiannobles nobili veneti. But the old aristocracy refused toabandon its privileges. The Archontes, who had supposedly cometo the island after Phokas' reconquest, had still great influence.They had under subjection the Archontopouloi, free Greeks, whowere economically and legally dependent on a relative or protector.Among the more powerful of these families were the Kallergi andthe Skordylides, whose mutual jealousy was exploited by Venice.The lower class lived under miserable conditions.The taxes crushed then; they could not attend schools; epidemicsand famine moved them down. The oppression made the Cretans lookwith sympathy upon the Turkish advance in the Mediterranean. TheTurks looked better to them the Venetians, who confiscated GreekChurch property, expelled the Metropolitan, replaced the GreekOrthodox religion with a Latin hierarchy and multiplied Latinmonastic orders. Cretans were immigrating to Egypt, preferringto serve in the Sultan's fleet than in the Venetian galleys. Cretanmountain dwellers, in turn, poined the Turks in 1647 out of theirhatred for Venice. C. The Rebellions This was why Crete, unlike the duehy of Athensand the principate of Achaia, appeared as a land torn by internalstrife. Venetian colonialism was heavy even for the coloniststhemselves, which fact best explains the 13th and 14th centuryinsurrections. There were more than fourteen between 1207 and1365: the first was in 1212, by the ghiostephanites or Argyropouli,which in a short while spread throughout Crete, and only quickhelp from Venice quelled it. Soon after, in 1217, another revoltbroke out, where a private dispute, over stolen horses, the nobleSkordyles and the Venetian Castellan, served as the cause. Therevolt spread rapidly, but a treaty was drawn up and signed betweena new Duke and the rebels. A very great, and for the Venetians,very dangerous rebellion came in 1230 in the Rethymno area, wherethe Skordylides, Melisseni and Drakontopouli noble clans had gathered.The rebellion went on for six years, until Venice conceded muchland and many garrisons to bring it to an end. Venice from thispoint on had its hands full with Crete. In 1252 a large colonyof Venetians came to the west, and founded Khania, where ancientKydonia once was, and where now the Governor of Crete and manynobles would reside. In 1273 the Hortatzai brothers, well lovedand very capable men, became the leaders of a great rebellion.For the six years the war lasted, it cost the Venetians greatlosses. But it was the Cretan nobleman Alexios Kallerges who swungthe scales for the Venetians, having been lured by their promises.The attack against the Hortatzai was decisive, and in 1279 therebellion was crushed. The Venetians did not keep their promisesto Kallerges, and were, moreover, very cruel to the Cretan rebels.In 1283, therefore, Kallerges raised one of the longest and mostdestructive rebellions. After sixteen years of fighting, the Venetiansand Kallerges secretly negotiated to end the rebellion, with numerousconcessions on both sides. Mixed marriages were allowed, a Greekbishropic given and many other privileges in exchange of whichKallerges swore unbroken allegiance to Venice. Both sides kepttheir promise almost to the end. Through the rebellions that broke out in Margaritesin 1332; in Apokoronas in 1341; in Amari, Sfakia, Mesara and elsewherethroughout their island, the Cretans succeeded in winning forthemselves new benefits. The aristocracy was thus strengthened,while by means of mixed marriages the Venetian element in Cretewas weakened, so that the harsh treatment of Venice toward itscolony led to a revolt in 1362, in which Cretans and venetiancolonists overthrew Venetian rule and dedared a Cretan Republicunder the flag of St. Titus, who had Christianized the islandthirteen centuries before. After a two year struggle, the rebellionwas suppressed by forces sent from Venice. A new rebellion occurredin 1365, which Venice crushed with such very great losses to itselfthat it made life for the islanders even more miserable. Torture,beheading and hanging reached new heights; towns and villageswere raised and the cultivation of fields was punishable by death.The ensuing pestilence, famine and utter poverty completed theintended ruination. As the Turks advanced and Byzantines, Latinsand Venetians retreated, the Cretans saw that they could no longerhope for success alone, and rebellions there-after became fewer.Nature, moreover, seems also to have conspired against the Cretans.A great earthquake in 1507 killed no less than 30,000, while theplagues of 1456-1457, 1522 and 1524 put to death over 50,000.Yet, the Turkish attacks on the island, which had already begun,and on account of which the Venetians were treating the Cretansmore leniently, were unsuccessful; and the great rebellion in1570 under Kontanoleos might well have spelled the end of Venetianrule, but its leaders (it is said) were trapped and killed atthe wedding of Kontanoleos' son and his would-be Venetian wife.Not much later, a plague in 1592-1593, a catastrophicearthquake in 1595, and a widespread famine in 1596 were weakeningthe island, preparing it for its new masters. In 1645, SultanIbrahim I found a pretext to lay seige to Crete. The Cretans andVenetians fought the Turks - though at times the Cretans foughtthe Venetians by the side of the Turks - for 25 years, in a strugglethat laid 51,000 dead, left the land destroyed, churches lootedand turned to mosques, and a people physically and emotionallyexhausted and enslaved. Art and Literature under Venetian RuleAll travelers to Crete praise the beauty ofits cities, their large populations, and their strong forti- fications.The houses were built in Renaissance style, with all its knowngraces. Religious architecture has not left us any examples, savein the case of the church of St. Mark in Herakleion, later a mosque.Many artists of the time are mere names. JohnPagomenos, the most original, decorated St. George, near Sfakiain 1314. About Pelergi, Apostoli and Zorzi we know next to nothing.The greatest af all, Kyriakos or Domenikos Theotokopoulos, betterKnown as El Greco, did his best work in Spain. Nor did the famous"Cretan School," the soul of which was Theophanes, leaveany works on the island. Literature betrays, however, the greatestinfluence from Italy. Many texts survive, written ia the Latinalphabet. The theater, in turn, sought its models in the Commediadell' arte. But it is the literature written in the Cretan dialectthat has marked the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries as the CretanRenaissance within the compass of Modern Greek literature. Akriticepics were followed by love poems, stories, bucolic idylls, comedies,mysteries and dramas, among which the long, narrative, romanticpoem, Erotokritos, the drama, The Saerifice of Abraham,both by Kornaros, and the tragedy, Erophile, by Chortatzis,stand supreme. One of several historical poems, which is of morethan literary value, is The Cretan War (1645-1689) by MarinosTsanes Bounialis.
A Brief History of Crete
- X. The Turkish Occupationof Crete
Cretan history under Turkish rule is littlemore than a two and a half century long military history. Innumerablebattles, on every spot of Cretan soil where a battle could befought, mark the bloody struggle of the Cretans against theirnew conquerors. The island was under an inept and corrupt rule;taxation crushed it; it was devoid of intellectual or spiritualactivity, and, despite a reputed tolerance, its religious convictionswere inceasingly menaced. A. Turkish rule in the 1"lth and 18thCenturies The administration and defense of Crete wereentrusted to a governor appointed by the central government atConstantinople. In his absence, the administration rested withthe commandant of the army, the agha of the janissaries - thecorps d' eHte of the Turkish army. The ]anissaries were recruitedfrom Christian children, of age six or seven, every four years.The economy was in the hands of a Hazine Defterdar, a Ministerof the Treasury. Crete was divided into three provinces or sanjaks,with Khania, Rethymnon, and Herakleion as capitals, governed bypashas, who were notorious for their corruption. The Turkish garrisonconsisted of 2 to 3,000 janissaries. The greatest part of theforces occupied Khania and Herakleion, and the rest were distributedin fortresses and strategic points on the coasts and elsewhere.The mountainous parts, where the Sfakiotes lived, in western Crete, remained essentially outsideof Turkish jurisdiction. Before long, a short of "religious'geography took form, where the Moslems held the plains and theChristians held the mountain ranges. Population figures differwidely for Crete during the 17th and 18th centuries, but it appearsthat Moslems outnumbered Christians almost two to one! This was,of course, the result of islamization, which was enforced in avariety of ways. One such was by torture. There were other waysand incentives. The Christian under Moslem law theoretically hadto choose between conversion and death. However, in reality, hepaid a poll tax, the harac, "for the privilege of living";his women awaited' the pleasure of a Turkish lord; his propertycould be - and invariably was - seized; whatever and from whereverhis earnings, he paid tithes and taxes on them; and his childrenwere seized to compose the fanatic corps of the janissaries, themost merciless group of the armed forces - a membership otherChristian parents commonly avoided by mangling the body of theirchildren. Christians appealed to the Patriarchates of Constantinopleand Alexandria for permission to undergo apparent conversion,and were refused on the basis of Matt. X. 32-33; Nektarius, Patriarchof Jerusalem (1660-1669) showed more moderation. At any rate,the converts-at-heart, many of whom were land-owning Venetians,reluctant to lose their property, outstripped one another to impressthe Turks, by their lelentless ferociousness on other Cretans,and the infamous hatred between Turks and Cretans, that survivedtill present days, had originated, to no inconsiderable extent,in these relations between the Turkified and other Cretans. The administration of justice was in the handsof the Moslems; there were no mixed courts, and legislation wasanything but favorable to the Christians. They were not to leavethe island, save as seamen or merchants. In spite of the oppression,Christians could exercise their religious duties. The clergy werethe only organized force on the island, and became, before long,the defender of the Christian community's interests. Often, theSultans entrusted the distribution and collection of the taxesto it, and allowed it to appeal directly to Constantinople. B. Economie Decline The Turkish occupation testified to the declineof Cretan economy. All travelers agree that agricultural declinewas a fact. Vine cultivation fell; importation of wheat was necessary;cotton was disappearing; wool and silk were ill-wrought. Contrarily,Cretan Commerce was active. The years 1731, 1732 and 1740 markedsignificant commercial ties between Crete and France - oil toFrance, and coffee, indigo, lace and tin to Crete. But commerce,because of heavy taxation imposed by the Turks, failed to contributeto the island's wealth. C. The Revolt of Daskaloyiannis in 1770After the fall of Herakleion to the Turks,Venice concentrated on preserving its influence in the Adriatic,and left the Christian population in lands formerly held by itto their fate under the Turks. Greeks, accordingly, looked towardsChristian Russia as their savior. Peter the Great, as part ofhis plan to expand southward to the Black Sea, posed as the championof the Balkan Christians, and his policy, with variations, wascontinued by Catherine the Great (1762-1796) in her wars againstthe Turks. She dreamed of resurrecting the Byzantine Empire -the Greek Scheme - with her son its emperor, and sent Russianagents to the Morea Peloponnesos) to stir up the Greeks againstthe Turks. One of the agents reached the Sfakiote Daskaloyiannis,at whose ill advice the Sfakiotes rose in revolt. The Cretanswere hardly ready for the task, having virtually no weapons, andwhen the Russo-Turkish conflict was shortly over, the revolutionaryCretans were utterly alone, facing the Turkish troops which weremarching against them from Khania, Rethymnon and Herakleion. Havingcaptured the brother and daughters of Daskaloyiannis, the Pashaincreased his overtures to the leader to give up, promising leniency,and Daskaloyiannis, in hope or releasing them, decided to go tohim. Most leaders of the revolt had already been killed. The Pashahad Daskaloyiannis skinned alive, strip by strip, as his otherbrother watched, before hundreds summoned at a public square.Neither the abortive revolt nor the death went in vain, however,for they both made great impression, at home and abroad, and arousedconsiderably the national sentiments of Cretans. Later, that patrioticfire was further fanned by the American and French Revolutions.D. The Revolts of the 18th CenturyThe next fifty years, after 1770, proved tobe the most brutal in Crete's long history. The janissaries riotedunrestrainedly, and even the Sultan's pashas, at least until Osmanand Kioutachis, failed to control them and the corruption of theiraghas, which was greatly curtailing the Sultan's revenue. Foryears, the only force the janissaries feared was that of manykrypto-Christians, especially in Mesara, under the leadershipof the Kourmoulis family. The Declaration of Independence of 1821 inmainland Greece provoked the Turks to brutal slaughter throughoutCrete, which indeed precipitated retaliation by the Cretans almostimmediately, and compelled all who had been hesitant to join inthe organized effort to overthrow Turkish yoke and seek unionwith Greece. Michael Afentoulief, and later Peter Skylitsis, camefrom Greece to organize and lead the Cretans. Soon the Turks wereconfined to the forts. The Sultan being unable to help becauseof the Greek struggle for independence, left the matter up tohis vassal Mohammed Ali of Egypt, who had a thoroughly organizedarmy. Fierce battles continued unceasingly, with aid, coming toCretans from the Cretans who had gone to Greece, and to the Turksfrom Egypt, which used Albanian mercenary forces. When the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 excludedCrete from the now independent Greece, the Cretans protested invain. European ships imposed peace, ceded Crete to Egypt's MohammedAli as compensation for his losses in Crete and Navarino, andrefused, under the guidance of Great Britain, to grant anythingbeyond a simple protection against arbitrary and oppressive rule.The administration of Crete was put into thehands of the Albanian Moustafa Pasha, who abolished the privilegesof the janissaries, reorganized estates, disarmed both Moslemsand Christians, had roads, bridges, aqueducts, harbors and otherpublic works repaired or constructed, many of which had had nocare since the time of the Venetians. But all this was done byincreasing the poll tax, imposing disproport onate taxes, andconsfication of property - an intolerable burden on an economicallydrained people and a war-devastated land. The Cretans warred,and were suppressed, until 1841, when Crete once again fell intothe hands of the Turks. In 1850, Moustafa was succeded by Mehmet Edin,and he, in turn, by Moustafa's son, Velis Pasha, who was incompetent.Velis' crushing taxation, licentious rule, and cruelty broughtabout organized protests by a Commission (Epitrope) at Moutsounariain 1858. Appeals to the Consulates caused the Sultan to recallVelis, abolish some taxes, grant amnesty, religious toleranceand arms. The Treaty of Paris (1856) provided for improvingthe condition of Christian subjects. The edict Hatti-i Humayunpromised security of life, honor, and property, and that churcheswere to be governed by synods; it promised liberty of conscience,civil services open to all subjects, the abolition of tortureand reform of prisons. Corruption was so deeply rooted, that bothChristian prelates and Turkish officials opposed the edict. In 1866, the Cretans appealed to the Sultanto apply the articles of the edict precisely. However, IsmaelPasha pursued the Commission that had made the requests, and whilethe Turks were mobilizing, the Cretans counterplotted with thosein Greece for armed aid. In July 1866, the Sultan's refusal arrived,and in a month an assembly convened, which declared Crete's unionwith Greece. At first, the Greek Government did not approveof this dangerous move, but it yielded to popular demand. Europeanpowers were unsympathetic, save for Russia, which secretly supportedthe revolt through its consuls. The revolt, in reality, was nothingless than the small island of Crete pitted against the might ofthe Ottoman Empire - which, for the moment, had no other seriousdistraction. A Cretan force of a few thousand revolutionarieswas to face tens of thousands of the Turkish and Egyptian regulararmed forces, to say nothing of the supplies of light and heavyartillery, available to the latter. The leaders of the revolt:Korakas, Kriaris and Hadji Michalis and others, as well as theleaders of volunteers: Zymbrakis, Koronaios and Petropoulakisfought valiantly against field marshals such as Moustafa, Omerand Resit. And on this account the uneven battle excited the wonderof the world that watched. By October 1866, western Crete had been wonby Moustafa, while Resit was busy in the Mylopotamos area. Moustafamarched to the Monastery of Arcadi, which about 900 persons hadoccupied, under the young lieutenant Demakopoulos and the AbbotGabriel, and of whom only about 300 were armed fighters, the restbeing old men, women and children. Gradually, the cannon thathad been brought speeded up the inevitable. The Monastery's gatewas demolished; the Turks poured in, as women and children wentdown to the gunpowder storeroom, and the hand combat was fierce.Then the fighter Giamboudakis, with the consent of all, shot intothe gunpowder, and the whole northeastern part of the Monastery,with the intended Turkish victims, blew up into the everlasting.The heroism of these people left Europe aghast. Some 100 personssurvived, only to be slaughtered, despite promises to the contrary.There was only one survivor: K. Papadakis from the village Amnatos.The battles continued throughout Crete - bloody,unrelenting massacres at every encounter of Cretans and Turks.Despite the craggy mountainous terrain of Crete, it would be verydifficult to find a spot where blood was not shed.
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